In 2001, archaeologists were painstakingly excavating a dwelling at the Bronze-Age site of Cladh Hallan in  the Outer Hebrides islands off of Scotland’s northwestern coast. The house had been oval in shape, with a low door leading to an interior hearth. Other conveniences included sunken storage areas and stone-lined water storage tanks. Under the floors of these houses, though, and under the feet of the occupants, was a fascinating feature that evokes the opening scenes of a classic horror film. 

As the archaeologists slowly dug through the floor of the structure, they came unexpectedly upon a human skeleton, legs tucked up in the fetal position. Another skeleton, similarly arranged, was found beneath a different roundhouse’s floor. These people had clearly been laid to rest with care, with stones laid out around them. 

When archaeologists began to study the remains, though, they were staggered to learn that each body’s parts had not all come from the same person. These were composite mummies, assembled with the remains of at least six people who had died over the span of two hundred years. But this wasn’t a jumbled-together macabre collection or evidence of a Bronze-Age serial killer. These bodies had been treated carefully and buried in stone-lined graves. So what were the people of Cladh Hallan doing with the dug-up remains of their ancestors? 

What was Cladh Hallan? And what mummies were found there?

More than four thousand years ago, early farmers began to work the soil on the Outer Hebrides islands off of Scotland’s northwestern coast. At the time, the Roman Empire and even ancient Greece were specks on the chronological horizon. Along the Aegean coast, Minoans and Mycenaeans were building palaces and cities. Farther north, Germanic tribes were exporting amber and expertly forging bronze and gold artifacts. 

At Cladh Hallan, early farmers grew barley, herded sheep, and foraged the abundant resources on the island’s beaches. Their descendants continued to thrive on the island for centuries, the population grew, and so did the need for land.

Nearly a thousand years into Cladh Hallan’s occupation, with living space on the small island becoming harder to find, people started building over the burial grounds of their ancestors. But the islanders were definitely aware of the graves beneath their feet—in fact, they went out of their way to acknowledge the people buried in them. 

Residents of Cladh Hallan dug down into these older burials containing both cremated and unburnt remains, removing some parts and leaving the rest undisturbed. Then they assembled the exhumed remains into the requisite anatomical combinations that modern archaeologists have found centuries later. Once this was done, the composite bodies were once again laid to rest under the foundations of the roundhouses. 

The best mummy finds at Cladh Hallan

The two best-known adult skeletons from Cladh Hallan are the most unusual. Each was found under a roundhouse. One skeleton was identified as male, the other female, based on their pelvic bones. The bodies date to between 1300 and 1500 BCE…mostly. 

The skeleton originally identified as a woman had a man’s skull where her own head used to be. Two of the teeth were missing from the skull, and those had been placed in each of the woman’s hands. By radiocarbon dating the bones, researchers found that the skull actually belonged to a man who had died at least a century earlier, perhaps a relative from an older generation. 

The body originally identified as male was put together from three different people—all confirmed as male through DNA testing. The burial was made up of a man’s torso, a second man’s skull, and a third man’s jawbone. Each of these men had died at different times over the span of about 150 years. Again, ancestry and family identity seem to play a big part in these re-burials. 

It isn’t terribly uncommon for cultures to include their deceased loved ones in celebratory, ritual, or even daily activities. Every few years, families in the Toraja region of Sulawesi, Indonesia exhume the remains of loved ones, clean them, dress them in fresh garments, and honor them with festivals. 

South Korean “death beads” are made from the cremated remains of family members and displayed in the home. 

Pre-colonial Inca religious tradition included regular ceremonial processions featuring the remains of people “buried” in natural alcoves in the Andes mountains and mummified by the dry, cold mountain air. The Cladh Hallan skeletons had once been mummified as well, though this was not mummification as it was practiced in ancient Egypt, nor like the mountainside Inca tradition. 

First, the bodies were tightly wrapped in fabric, which kept the bones and soft tissue flexed into the fetal position. This is why the limbs remained so tightly curled towards the torso, and why the bodies were so well-preserved. Archaeologists were able to identify this type of preservation based on microscopic changes to the surfaces of the bones from the acidic environment of the peat bogs in which the bodies were submerged after wrapping.

Why peat is so good at preserving bodies

Peat is a dense, wet accumulation of centuries of decaying plant matter, and is a feature of lots of landscapes, particularly in the northern latitudes. People have used dried peat as fuel for thousands of years, since it burns well and slowly, and is plentiful in areas where there aren’t a lot of trees for firewood. Peat from the Scottish isles, notably, is responsible for the smoky, earthy taste characteristic of Scotch whiskey. 

Peat bogs are so packed with plant material that there is almost no oxygen present, which is great for preservation, as is the typically cool temperature beneath the peat’s surface. The lack of oxygen keeps microbes and other critters from consuming the body’s soft tissues, and the tannic acid from all the decaying plants in the bog turns skin dark and leathery. 

By first burying the bodies of family members under layers of peat, the people at Cladh Hallan ensured that the remains would be as intact as possible when later generations exhumed them. This not only means that the Bronze Age inhabitants of the island were well aware of peat’s preservative properties, but that the entire process was a deliberate sequence of events. 

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But why did people in Cladh Hallan make these many-part mummies?

Archaeologists interpret the pieced-together reburials as a part of a social or religious tradition that emphasized family lines and reverence for ancestors. Stones clearly marked the graves under the roundhouses, so the homes’ placement was definitely on purpose. 

The initial bog burials were deliberately used as a source of family remains, and the parts that composed the buried skeletons seem to have been deliberately chosen, though we may never know why or how. It seems as though ancestor-recycling may have been a regular process at Cladh Hallan in the later part of the Bronze Age, as older generations gave way to new. 

Archaeologists also surmise that the exhumed mummified remains were initially kept above ground, maybe in a special place in the house, and included as a part of daily life. These multi-ancestor figures might have been consulted when important decisions were made, or they may have been seen as household protectors. 

Archaeology can never really uncover the full story of what people thought and believed thousands of years ago. Thoughts do not fossilize, and decay and weathering affect even the best-preserved archaeological sites. 

We will probably never know exactly what it was like to live at Cladh Hallan when it was a busy, thriving settlement. We may never understand how the people that lived there conceived of their world, or how they thought about spirituality. Thanks to the burials at Cladh Hallan, though, we have a tantalizing glimpse of how people may have seen death in their universe as a continuous, pieced-together chain of lives lived over generations. 

In That Time When, Popular Science tells the weirdest, most surprising, and little-known stories that shaped science, engineering, and innovation.

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The Corps of Discovery Expedition set out in 1804, directed by President Thomas Jefferson to survey the United States’ newly acquired Louisiana Purchase. The exploration forms a core piece of early U.S. history. Picture a scene from the journey: It’s a cool morning, the silence punctuated by birdsong and the rustle of the breeze through the cottonwood trees. To one side, Commander William Clark, his rifle leaning against a plum tree and his rucksack nearby, squats over a latrine pit, unceremoniously heeding the call of nature. 

The Louisiana Purchase constituted a territory of around 828,000 square miles, which the U.S. had bought from France in 1803. This was, it is worth noting, largely without the consent of the Indigenous groups who had lived there for millennia. The purpose of the expedition was threefold: to find a practical trade route westward to the Pacific coast, to explore and document the territory, and to stake a claim to the area before any other European powers butted in. Led by Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, the 40-man team, plus their guide Sacagawea, spent more than two years trekking westward.

Believe it or not, the holes that were used as toilets along the march to the Pacific have been invaluable for archaeologists and historians. This is thanks especially to a type of treatment included in the expedition’s medical kit. 

How Lewis and Clark went to the bathroom

Everybody poops—it’s a universal human need. But most accounts of the Corps of Discovery’s journey leave out the details of how the Corps members dealt with bathroom business. 

Each of the campsites where the expedition spent time had an accompanying latrine pit, situated well away from camp for sanitary (and privacy) reasons. The latrines would have seen a lot of use, because the Corps of Discovery’s diet wasn’t the best for gut health. 

While the expedition members relied heavily on foraged and hunted food, they also carried backup rations. These included nearly 14,000 pounds of dry goods, including flour, salt, coffee, dried pork, and lard. All told, each member of the Corps ate around nine pounds of meat per day. All of that protein without lots and lots of fiber added up to frequent constipation. The untreated water they drank from rivers and creeks they encountered probably didn’t help their circumstances. Enter…Dr. Rush’s Bilious Pills. 

The mercury constipation pills known as “thunderclappers”

In 1803, as preparation for the upcoming expedition, William Clark traveled to Philadelphia for a two-week medical crash course with Dr. Benjamin Rush. Rush was a prominent physician in his day, and a Founding Father of the United States. His signature is one of the 56 on the Declaration of Independence.

Rush taught Clark some basic field skills, such as bone-setting and wound treatment. Clark left Philadelphia with new skills and a well-stocked medical kit that included 50 dozen of Doctor Rush’s Bilious Pills. These were compounded tablets about the size of a raisin, composed of powerful laxative ingredients. The pills were nicknamed “thunderclappers” because of the speed with which they took effect. The main ingredient of the thunderclappers was calomel, or mercury chloride. 

Mercury, historically also called quicksilver, has been thought to have curative effects for centuries. It’s a metal that is liquid at room temperature, which seems miraculous in and of itself. 

It was also a popular treatment for syphilis. This is not to say it was an effective treatment for syphilis. When it was administered for that disease, slowly in low doses, patients were more likely to die from mercury poisoning than from the STI. 

When taken in larger doses, though, as in the thunderclapper pills, it prompted a quick evacuation, the body’s way of ejecting poison. The men of the Lewis and Clark expedition used these pills freely as a way to compensate for their high-protein and low-fiber diet. As a result, all the latrine pits they used between the Midwest and the Pacific coast were laced with high concentrations of mercury. 

Lewis and Clark pooped mercury. Today archaeologists use it to map their route.

As many an environmentalist will caution, mercury does not decompose when it’s in the ground. It stays put, and is detectable through modern soil testing techniques. The 600-plus latrines dug and used by the Corps of Discovery form a trail of their own, marked by mercury. 

The expedition was a government-sanctioned military expedition, so Lewis and Clark both kept copious notes on every aspect of their travels. Historians have tried to pinpoint the locations of these camps based on the expedition journals, with minimal success. 

The only campsite that archaeologists have been able to confirm so far is the Traveler’s Rest camp, just outside of Missoula, Montana. This is all thanks to the remains of Dr. Rush’s Bilious Pills, which left enough mercury in the ground to differentiate the remains of a latrine pit (or “sink” as they were called in the 1800s) from animal burrows or agricultural ditches. 

Archaeology is all about reconstructing the lives of people in the past, and it’s worth remembering that this means all aspects of life. Our own bodily functions remind us that we all share complex and interwoven histories, and that even the most mundane parts of our lives can be important in the future. 

In That Time When, Popular Science tells the weirdest, surprising, and little-known stories that shaped science, engineering, and innovation.

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In 1948, Muriel Howorth was living a relatively ordinary life in the seaside town of Eastbourne on the south coast of England when she received a letter that would completely change the trajectory of her life.

From an early age, she had wanted to take part, or as she put it, “be of use” in international affairs. During World War II, she was employed by the Ministry of Information, the government office primarily responsible for wartime publicity and propaganda in the UK. 

Howorth must have been talented at promotion and publicity, because the letter that arrived in 1948—“out of the blue,” according to her personal papers—inquired if she would like to apply her talents to making atomic energy seem more friendly.

She was well-educated, but not terribly knowledgeable about atomic science, so she borrowed a book by the radiochemist Frederick Soddy, who was born in Eastbourne, titled The Interpretation of Radium. Within a few chapters, she found herself a true believer in the promise of the atom. She would devote the rest of her life to sharing the wonders of atomic science with anyone who would listen. 

Nuclear energy gets a rebrand after WWII

The United States dropped atomic bombs on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on August 6 and 9, 1945, a key factor in the end of World War II. The scale of the destruction and the ongoing damage from nuclear fallout after these attacks was vast. Despite the devastation, when a Gallup poll was released in mid-August of 1945, 85 percent of Americans approved of the bombing.

The atom was more or less a mystery to the average American, and was seen both as something to be feared and a source of hope. The potential for nuclear energy seemed endless, and although the Soviet Union was America’s ally, establishing a lead over the Soviets in nuclear technology seemed prudent.

Muriel Howorth’s pro-nuclear children’s book and atomic gardening

In the years after World War II, American and European scientists and heads of state agreed that there should be a focus on more productive and peaceful uses for atomic power. The letter that Howorth received in 1948 was part of this effort. She threw herself into projects that combined science education and entertainment.

Notable among these was an elaborately choreographed pantomime titled Isotopia: An Exposition on Atomic Structure. Howorth also self-published a children’s book featuring Daddy Proton, Mummy Neutron, and their electron children. Her greatest impact as an early science communicator, though, was her work in atomic gardening. 

Irradiated peanuts and other miracles of atomic gardens

Applying radiation to agricultural plants was, in part, a response to wartime scarcity. Restricted rations had made people acutely aware of the possibility of food insecurity. Researchers hoped that exposure to gamma radiation might induce mutations that resulted in higher-yielding or disease-resistant crop varieties. Perhaps some of those crops might be more dense in nutrients, too.

As atomic ambassador, Howorth founded the Atomic Gardening Association and recruited hundreds of members—or, as she called them, “atomic mutation experimenters.” Soon, atomic gardening kits were available to the public. One could send away for packets of seeds from an irradiated plant. By planting these seeds and propagating multiple generations of the plants, home gardeners could test whether any useful-seeming mutations had arisen.

Howorth herself served a mutated variety of Carolina peanuts to some of her scientist friends in 1959. Their response was underwhelming, so she planted the rest of the peanuts in her garden, where they grew remarkably quickly and produced extremely large peanuts. She usually kept a handful of these extra-large peanuts tucked away in her handbag in case the opportunity arose to recruit a new member to the Atomic Gardening Association.

Howorth’s lasting legacy to citizen science

It’s tempting to view Howorth as a kooky eccentric. Contemporary newspaper reports of her various events and projects were certainly dismissive in tone. More accurately, she represents an early effort at addressing the gap between scientific research and public understanding.

The world was far less interconnected in her day, with no internet, no omnipresent news media, and no social media platforms. Not only that, but the idea of women as integral parts of scientific research was slow to catch on, despite pioneering work by scientists like Marie Curie and Rosalind Franklin. 

Today, the same gulf exists between what scientists publish in their fields and what the average person understands. The same challenge of translating scientific language for public consumption exists for science communicators, but the tools available to them have evolved beyond recognition. You can find videos and posts by scientists explaining everything from how blimps work to what various chemical reactions look like, or from how fossils form to why black holes are so dark.

If Howorth were around today, her atomic choreography might have gone viral. As it stands, she was a wonderful example of the love of sharing knowledge with the public, and of the excitement and joy that comes with learning new things about how our world works. 

In That Time When, Popular Science tells the weirdest, surprising, and little-known stories that shaped science, engineering, and innovation.

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The post The British author who harvested mutant, jumbo peanuts from her atomic garden appeared first on Popular Science.